|
 Germany
is a country which highly values education and vocational
training, research and science. The country has produced quite
a number of Nobel Prize winners, high-level scientific work
is undertaken there, international projects are promoted,
and students from all over the world come to study at first
class universities. Education, science and research are structured
in line with the federal nature of the Federal Republic of
Germany. As a result, the central government is only able
to set goals leaving the Federal states responsible for the
school system and cultural matters.
The Central government is, by contrast, responsible for the
organization of vocational training in the dual system. Central
government and the federal states work together on the "Commission
of Central Government and the Federal States for Education
Planning and Research Support". The Federal States agree
policy among themselves as part of the Standing Conference
of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the
Federal States.
The constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany guarantees
everyone the freedom of self-expression and freedom in their
choice of profession, training, and workplace. In this context,
education policy aims to provide each individual with the
best possible education as well as high-quality vocational
training that corresponds to their interests and abilities,
thus raising young people to become mature citizens prepared
to shoulder responsibility in democratic society.
In 2004, Germany spent EUR 193.3 billion on education,
research and science.
13.1 Teachers
In the Federal Republic there are specifically trained teachers
for every type and level of school. All must have completed
a course of study at a higher education institution, but there
are differences in the courses of study. Teachers at primary
school and secondary general school level generally study
for seven semesters. Longer courses of study generally lasting
nine semesters are required for intermediate school, special
school, grammar school and vocational school teachers. Upon
completion of their studies, all teachers must pass an initial
state examination. This is followed by a period of practical
training (usually two years), which includes preparatory seminars
and practice teaching in the various types of schools, followed
by a second state examination. Teachers at public schools
are generally professional state employees, in the eastern
states of Germany for the most part as salaried employees.
13.2 Vocational Training
13.2.1 Employee qualifications
Well-qualified and flexible employees create another advantage
for Germany. According to the most recent survey, 84% of employees
have vocational qualifications, 16% of this number have a
degree from a technical college or institute of tertiary education:
the dual system of vocational training which splits responsibility
for training between educational institutions and firms is
particularly practice orientated and successful.
The fact that the economy is little burdened by labor disputes
on an international comparison is an indication of the high
performance motivation of employees and the good social climate
which is based on a social partnership between unions and
employers. From 1990 to 1998, the number of strike days averaged
4.8 per 1,000 dependent employees in Germany, while
for example in Great Britain, the number of working days lost
through labor disputes totaled 26.4, in the United States
42.5, in Denmark 44.6 and in Italy 177.1.
13.2.2 The Dual System
By far the greatest majority of youngsters in Germany - around
70% of school leavers every year - learn an official state-recognized
trade in what is known as the dual system of vocational training.
Theoretical knowledge is gained in vocational schools and
practical training takes place directly at the place of work
or in special training facilities. This combination of theoretical
knowledge and practical expertise guarantees the internationally
recognized high level of qualification of German craftsmen
and skilled labourers.
The occupations for which training is provided in the dual
system are determined in close cooperation between central
government, the states and industry and employee associations
alike. The contents are geared to the requirements of the
labour market, and extensive theoretical qualifications ensure
that the youngsters enjoy a high degree of mobility in their
profession.
Depending on the occupation, training takes 2-3 years. The
training institutions pay trainees an allowance. The dual
system is financed by the companies involved (trainees' allowance)
and by the state (which covers the costs for vocational schools).
The dual system differs in two respects from the purely academic
vocational education, customary in many other countries: Learning
takes place on 3-4 week days in companies, and on 1-2 week
days in vocational schools.
The central government is the federal responsible for on-the-job
training, whereas classroom schooling is the responsibility
of states. Vocational training in firms takes place under
controlled conditions and with state-of-the-art machines and
facilities. Larger firms provide training in their own training
workshops and at the workplace. Trainees in smaller enterprises
are trained right on the job. Where firms are too highly specialized
to be able to impart all the necessary knowledge, they are
supported by intercompany training centers. Certain aspects
of training may also be taken over by other firms.
The task of vocational schools is to support and supplement
the on-the-job training by specialized theoretical training
and to broaden young people's general knowledge. Two thirds
of teaching is focused on specialized training, and one third
on general education. In 2002, there were 1.8 million
young people attending schools of this kind. Those under the
age of 18 (e.g. drop outs) who have no apprenticeship contract
in their pocket are legally required to attend school part-time
and can also attend vocational schools.
The dual system is constantly being advanced further to include
new occupations and modernized training for existing professions.
Over the past few years, new occupations for which training
is required have emerged specifically in the fields of IT
and media.
Vocational training is currently provided in approx. 350
recognized professions by around 643,000 firms in all
sectors of business, in the public sector as well as by independent
professions. In 2002, 1.6 million trainees made use of
this offer in Germany. There are quite clearly delineated
characteristics: more than 50% of all boys and more than 70%
of all girls opt for just 20 of the 360 professions for which
training is required.
The following jobs are particularly popular with male trainees:
car mechanic (every 13th trainee becomes one), painter and
decorator, electrician, and retail trade specialist, whereas
female trainees find the following particularly attractive:
commercial clerk (every 12th trainee becomes one), retail
trade specialist, hairdresser and physicians and dentist's
assistant.
13.3 Research
 In
Germany, the higher education institutions adhere to Humboldt's
theory of the unity of teaching and research, and are thus
important centers of research.
Spending on R&D
In addition to higher education institutions, public and private
non-commercial organizations are also involved in research.
Research conducted outside universities is based first and
foremost on that undertaken by higher education institutions.
Thus large-scale projects, especially those in the field of
sciences, which can only be conducted in large teams involving
expensive technology and large financial backing, are undertaken
outside the world of academia. In such cases, research institutions
are financed jointly by the central government and the federal
states. These include the Max Planck Gesellschaft, the Fraunhofer
Gesellschaft, the Helmholtz Gesellschaft and the Wilhelm Leibnitz
Gesellschaft. Research facilities maintained by industry also
play a vital role. In addition, the central government also
participates in large-scale European and international research
projects in the form of research organizations, such as the
European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN, or the German
Genome Project. The Arbeitsgemeinschaft Industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen,
or AIF, (Working Group of Industrial Research Organizations)
creates a link between research and development work conducted
by industry and the basic research and impetus for joint industrial
research. It also finances programs whereby small and medium-sized
companies are supported in a wide variety of joint projects
both in country and abroad.
In 2002, despite a lack of funds, federal and state governments
committed a total of almost Euro 4.9 billion for
research projects, an increase of almost 3.4% on the previous
year. While in 2004, Germany spent Euro 193.3 billion
on education, research and science.
The German federal government specifically funds innovative
research projects and ideas. The wide spectrum includes basic
research in the natural sciences, long-term environment-friendly
developments and new technologies. Together with new production
processes, research and development in areas such as chemistry
and material science, semi-conductors, laser and plasma technology
form the basis for tomorrow's new technological developments.
Multi-discipline developments, highly complex technology and
ecological modernization are of particular importance. Attention
is focused on nano-technology, superconductors, non-linear
dynamics, plasma technology and magneto-electronics, all of
which are important fields that will help shape the job markets
of the future. As an example, 95,000 jobs are currently dependent
on manufacturing electronic parts. This figure increases to
791,000 if the sector overall, i.e., software, hardware and
IT services, is included. This puts it on a level pegging
with the automobile industry.
With regard to nano-technology, six expertise centers are
being set up, above all, to advise companies that are planning
to set up operations in this sector. Pilot projects are being
funded prior to industrial application of nano-technologies
in practice, for example in opto-electronics, in chemical
nano-technologies, in nano-biotechnology, nano-analytics and
ultra-precision processing. In 2003 a total of Euro 78 million
was spent on nano-electronics research.
|
Between
1993 and 2002, the number of foreign students at higher education
institutions in Germany almost doubled, rising from 35,000
to 68,000. There were around 224,000 foreigners studying in
Germany in the winter semester 2002. Today, German higher
education institutions offer an increasing number of certificates
and academic degrees in confirmation to international study
structures and are recognized worldwide. Many German higher
education institutions take advantage of this when devising
new international courses. In total there are more than 1,800
new courses culminating in Bachelor's or Master's degrees.Spurred
on by a program initiated by the central government, many
higher education institutions are now offering internationally
study programs for applicants from Germany and abroad. One
foreign language (in most cases English) is used as the language
of instruction. Now, 246,000 foreign students are enrolled
at German institutes of higher education. After the United
States and Great Britain, Germany is the third most attractive
country world-wide for foreign students.
